The Impact of Socio-economic Factors on Child School Dropout
A Case Study of Singa Locality, Sennar State, Sudan

By
Omar Mohamed Nour Ibrahim Mohamed Berdo
B.Sc. (honor) Applied Statistics and Demography
University of Gezira, 2000
A dissertation Submitted to the population Studies Center
in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master of
Science in Population, Development and Reproductive Health
Population Studies Center
Faculty of Economic and Rural Development
University of Gezira
Main Supervise: professor. Ahmad Hamad Alnory
Co- Supervise: Dr. Mohamed Salih Maahfouz
February 2010
2
3
Acknowledgement
I am grateful to Allah, without Allah support I would ever
have been able to accomplish any thing.
I would also like to acknowledgement the great assistance from
the staff of population studies center.
Thanks are also to Ministry of Education in Sinner State, and
to my family and friends.
! !
4
The Impact of Socio-economic Factors on Child School Dropout:
A Case Study of Singa Locality, Sennar State, Sudan
Omar Mohamed Nour Berdo
Population, Development and Reproductive Health Master Program
Faculty of Economics and Rural Development
Population Studies Center - Gezira University
2009
Abstract
This study discusses the socioeconomic factors impact on children dropping out
in Singa Locality in Sennar State. The main objective of this study is there any
impact of the socioeconomic factors that lead children not to complete their
education?
The results show that socioeconomic factors have effective impact in children
not completing their studies.
The results show that 25% for the fathers illiterates, 29.7% complete primary
education; as the father's type of occupation 44.3% were manual workers,
25.3% were agricultural labors.
The results show that 33.7% for the mothers illiterate, 31% complete primary
education, 49% unemployment, 23.7% manual labors.
The study recommended to eradiate illiteracy of parents and increasing of
education among them which will have a big impact on their children
completing their education. Support education-for-food, which showed good
results in the state of the Red Sea. The state and society civil organization
should work to develop the infrastructures of education institutions and the
support, stimulating children to go on education. The importance of social and
cultural factors in disseminating awareness among rural societies and here the
native administration plays on important role as it has a great status in rural
societies. ! !
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List of Contents
Topic Pages
Acknowledgement ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K I
English abstract ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K II
Arabic abstract ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. IV
List of contents ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. VI
List of abbreviations¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K VIII
List of tables ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. IX
List of figures ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K X
Chapter one: Introduction Pages
Introduction ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 1
Research problem ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 1
Research question ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 1
Research objectives ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 2
Main objective ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 2
Sup ¡V objective ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 2
Importance of research ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 2
Methodology¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 2
Conceptual framework ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 2
Schematic presentation ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 2
Description of the variables ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 5
Sample design & sample size ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 6
Data sources ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 6
Area of study ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 7
Data analysis ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 7
Organization of thesis ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 7
Chapter two: Literature review Pages
Introduction ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 8
Definition of education ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 9
Education in Africa ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 9
Education in Arab Countries ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K 10
Importance of education ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 11
Quality of education¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 11
History of education in Sudan ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 11
6
Levels of education ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 13
Basic education ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K 13
Education facilities ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 14
Define dropout ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 15
The factors of school dropout ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 16
Regional Profiles ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 23
Determine the level and characteristics of the child labor in Sudan ¡K.. 25
Chapter three: Analysis of study population Pages
Type of Units ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K 26
Type of Residence ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K 27
Type of gender ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 27
Child age group ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 27
Father's age group ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 28
Father's education ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 29
Father's occupation ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 30
Mother's age group ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 31
Mother's education ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K 32
Mother's occupation ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 33
Family income ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 34
Family member works ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 34
Disposable income ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K 35
Expenditure on child schooling ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K 36
Cross tabulation ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K 36
Chapter Four: Conclusion and Recommendations Pages
Introduction¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K 47
Conclusion ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K 47
Recommendations ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K 48
References ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 49
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List of Abbreviations
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
CBS Central Bureau of Statistics
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
SPSS Statistic Packet for Social Science
ISCED International Standard Classification of Education
AIDS Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
IQ Intelligence Quotient
SDG Sudanese Pounds
8
List of Tables
Tables Pages
The Variables definition................................................................ 5
Number of child dropout by administrative units (2008 ¡V 2009)¡K.. 7
Name of Unit¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 26
Type of Residence¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 2 7
Type of Gender¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 27
Child Age Group¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K...... 28
Father's Age Group¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 29
Father's Education ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K 29
Father's Occupation ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 30
Mother's Age Group ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 31
Level of Mother's Education¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 3 2
Mother's work ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K....... 3 3
Type of Mother's Occupation ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K....... 3 3
Family Income¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K....... 3 4
Family Member Works ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K 34
Disposable Income ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 35
Expenditure of Education¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 3 6
Cross tabulation between child dropout & type of residence ¡K¡K... 36
Cross tabulation between child dropout & type of gender ¡K¡K¡K... 37
Cross tabulation between child dropout & family size¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K 38
Cross tabulation between child dropout & father's age group ¡K¡K.. 39
Cross tabulation between child dropout & father's occupation¡K¡K 39
Cross tabulation between child dropout & mother's age group¡K¡K 40
Cross tabulation between child dropout & mother's occupation ¡K.. 41
Cross tabulation between child dropout & family income¡K¡K¡K... 41
Cross tabulation between child dropout & expenditure ¡K¡K¡K¡K... 42
Cross tabulation between child dropout & school distance¡K¡K¡K.. 43
Cross tabulation between child dropout & academic standard¡K¡K 44
Cross tabulation between child dropout & class dropout ¡K¡K¡K¡K. 45
Cross tabulation between child dropout & child order ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 46
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List of Figures
Figures Pages
Figure 1-1 shows Conceptual Framework of the Study¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.. 3
Figure 3.1.1 show Name of Unit ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K 26
Figure 3.1.2 show type of residence¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 2 7
Figure 3.1.3 show type of gender ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 27
Figure 3.1.4 show child age group ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K............. 28
Figure 3.1.5 show father's age group¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K............. 29
Figure 3.1.6 show father's education¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.............. 30
Figure 3.1.7show father's occupation ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 30
Figure 3.1.8 show mother's age group¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 31
Figure 3.1.9 show level of mother's education ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 32
Figure 3.1.11 show type of mother's occupation ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 33
Figure 3.2.1 show family income¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K... 34
Figure 3.2.2 show family occupation ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 35
Figure 3.2.3 show disposable income¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K 35
Figure 3.2.4 show expenditure of education ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K.............. 3 6
Figure 3.3.1 show cross tabulation between child dropout & type of residence ¡K... 37
Figure 3.3.2 show tabulation between child dropout & type of gender ¡K¡K¡K¡K¡K. 37
Figure 3.3.3 show cross tabulation between child dropout & family size ¡K¡K¡K¡K. 38
Figure 3.3.4 show cross tabulation between child dropout & father's age group....... 39
Figure 3.3.5 show cross tabulation between child dropout & father's occupation..... 40
Figure 3.3.6 show cross tabulation between child dropout & mother's age group¡K. 40
Figure 3.3.7 show cross tabulation between child dropout & mother's occupation¡K 41
Figure 3.3.8 show cross tabulation between child dropout & family income¡K¡K¡K 42
Figure 3.3.9 show cross tabulation between child dropout & expenditure¡K¡K¡K¡K 42
Figure 3.4.1 show cross tabulation between child dropout & school distance¡K¡K.. 43
Figure 3.4.2 show cross tabulation between child dropout & academic standard¡K.. 44
Figure 3.4.3 show cross tabulation between child dropout & class dropout¡K¡K¡K 45
Figure 3.4.4 show cross tabulation between child dropout & child order ¡K¡K¡K¡K. 46
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CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Background
Sinner State is one of the states that was established in 1994 .The state consists
of seven localities and 20 administrative units. The economic activity depends
largely on agriculture and animal production.
The first primary school was initiated in Singa in 1904.the premises of the
school and the schools that were built later on were very poor in terms of
building, seating and teaching equipments. The primary educations since then
have been subject to substantial changes in the educational ladder. The
consecutive governments after independence made efforts to make primary
education universal.
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): goal2: Achieve universal
primary education. Target: Ensure that, boys and girls alike will be able to
complete a full course of primary schooling. However this target is not likely to
be achieved by the set horizon of the year 2015. This is mainly because in rural
areas most of the children at school age are out of schools either because they
are not enrolled or because they drop out. (UNICEF, 2002)
I find this topic very interest to me because education is a fundamental human
right: every child is entitled to it. It is critical to our development as individuals
and as societies, and it helps pave the way to a successful and productive future.
When we ensure that children have access to a rights-based, quality education
that is rooted in gender equality, we create a ripple effect of opportunity that
impacts generations to come.
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1.2 Research Problem
Basic education is an important stage because all the next levels are depends to
complete the basic education. The issue of child dropout of school is the
concern of every sector of the society both at local and national level. Any one
can observe that many children are not enrolled or not able to complete their
basic education.
1.3 Research Questions
1: What is the level and trend of child school drop ¡V out?
2: What are the causes of the child school drop ¡V out?
3: What policy measures are needed to reduce the child school drop ¡Vout?
4: What are the consequences of the child school drop ¡V out?
1.4 Research Objectives
1.4.1 Main Objective
The main objective of this study is to enhance research methodology in the field
of the school drop out. And to add a new body of data to the existing stock of
data in this field with a view of recommending possible solutions to reduce
child school drop ¡V out.
1.4.2 Sup-Objectives
The sup- objective of this study can be summarized in the following:
1: To estimate the level and trend the school drop- out.
2: To analyze causes of child school drop- out.
3: To recommend policy measures that is needed for the reduction of child
school drop - out.
1.5 Importance of Research
Education fundamentally influences who we are, what we know, what we
believe, how we think, and what we can do. It determines the prospects of
individuals and nations. It is the basis on which all other elements of
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development are founded. Leaving the school before completing basic
education or never attending school has become a problem of greater
proportion. It is not an individual problem; but it is rather a societal problem
that needs to be researched.
1.6 Methodology
1.6.1 Conceptual Framework
The dropout of pupils from school over a given period of time reflects the
impact of various socioeconomic factors, originating from the community and
homes/families of the pupils. The socioeconomic variables can broadly be
categorized into pre-primary learning of the pupil, the pupil¡¦s family
background, pupil¡¦s personality and community based factors.
Socio-economic variables influence the dropout of pupils directly by
influencing the pupil¡¦s decision to drop from school, or that of the parent to
withdraw the pupil from schooling. The variables also indirectly influence the
drop out of pupils by negatively affecting their education achievements in
school (attendance, learning and academic performance in examinations), this
in turn influences dropout of pupils. (Okumu, 2008)
1.6.2 Schematic Presentation
Most variables are interrelated and influence each other. Some of the variables
influence the dropout directly and indirectly. Figure (1-1) showed the
relationship between the dependent and independent variables.
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Direct influence
Indirect influence
Figure 1-1: Conceptual Framework of the Study
Dependent Variable
Child Drop Out
Independent Variable
Socio economic Factors
Endogenous Variables
Parent and Family background:
„h Family size
„h Education of parents
„h Father's occupation
„h Mother¡¦s occupation
„h Residence
„h Family income
„h Child birth place
„h Parent birth place
„h Parents a live
„h Health status of parents
Intermediate Variables
Child personal characteristics/
background:
„h Age
„h Gender
„h Health of child
„h Interest in education
„h Parental decisions
„h Workload at home
„h Harassment at home
„h Availability of
schools
„h Academic standard
„h School distance
Exogenous Variables
Communal factors
„h Child labor
„h Social services
„h No. of brothers and
sisters at school
„h Cultures
„h Security
„h Number of students in
the school
„h Number of students
drop-out
„h Customs and tradition
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The independent variables are comprised into three variables: Endogenous,
intermediate and exogenous:
1. Endogenous Variables
These include variables that influence the dependent variable directly such as:
family size, education of parent ¡Ketc.
2. Exogenous Variables
These include influences the dependent variable indirectly such as: child labor,
social services¡Ketc.
3. Intermediate Variables
These are variables that affect the dependent variable through the endogenous
and exogenous variables. They include child age, gender and health of
child¡Ketc.
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1.6.3 Description of the Variables
The table1.1 shows that the summarized of variables description by name,
category, type, classification and source of data.
Table 1.1 Shows the Variables Definition
Vs. Name Category Type Classification Source
Child drop out Dependent N. discrete Dependent Survey
Age of child Independent String Intermediate Survey
Sex of child Independent Cat. String Intermediate Survey
Health status of child Independent Cat. String Intermediate Survey
Interest in education Independent Cat. String Intermediate Survey
Residence Independent Cat. String Endogenous Survey
Child order Independent ordinal Endogenous Survey
Mother a live Independent Cat. String Endogenous Survey
Father a live Independent Cat. String Endogenous Survey
Father's education Independent Cat. String Endogenous Survey
Mother's education Independent Cat. String Endogenous Survey
Family income Independent N. discrete Endogenous Survey
Father's occupation Independent Cat. String Endogenous Survey
Mother¡¦s occupation Independent Cat. String Endogenous Survey
Workload at home Independent Cat. String Intermediate Survey
No. brothers & sister at school Independent N. discrete Exogenous Survey
Customs and tradition Independent Cat. String Intermediate Survey
Number of students in the school Independent N. discrete Exogenous Secondary
Number of students drop-out Independent N. discrete Exogenous Secondary
Family size Independent N. discrete Endogenous Survey
Child birth place Independent Cat. String Endogenous Survey
Father birth place Independent Cat. String Endogenous Survey
Mother birth place Independent Cat. String Endogenous Survey
Health status of Father Independent Cat. String Endogenous Survey
Health status of Mother Independent Cat. String Endogenous Survey
Parental decisions Independent Cat. String Intermediate Survey
Harassment at home Independent Cat. String Intermediate Survey
Availability of schools Independent Cat. String Intermediate Survey
Academic standard Independent Cat. String Intermediate Survey
School distance Independent Cat. String Intermediate Survey
16
1.7 Sample Design and Sample Size
It was decided that the sample was to be selected as a probability sample among
child dropout. The sample size is calculated using the formula for simple
random sampling with anticipated population proportion. The sample size is
obtained by the following equation:
When n* = preliminary sample size.
z= confidence level 100(1- £\).
P= anticipated population proportion, q= (1-p).
d= absolute precision at both sides of the anticipated population proportion.
Assuming z for 95% confidence level equals z=1.96, d=10%, p=0.5, q=0.5
Hence:
2
2
d
z pq
n ƒ­ = 96.04
10
(1.96) (50)(50)
2
2
n ƒ­ ƒ­
The final sample size is: 100*3= 300
100 respondents are studies in urban area (Singa City Unit) and 200
respondents are studies in rural area (Om Shoka Unit and Om Bneen Unit).
1.7.1 Data Sources
The data utilized in this study from two sources:
1: Primary data: these are used from survey based sampling of what the reason
of socio economic impact on child school drop out. The data of this study come
from a household survey conducted in October 2009. Questionnaire was used to
collect data from a sample 300 households Singa Locality. A sample random
sampling technique was used with child dropout. The questionnaire schedule
consists of the third sets of data; first set about the child such as residence, age,
sex. Second set about parents such as age; education; occupation and heath
stases. Third set about family background such as size; family income; number
of brothers and sisters in the schools; and family occupation.
17
2: Secondary data: these are extracted from formal records of Education
Statistics in Planning Administration, Ministry of Education, Sinnar State.
1.7.2 Area of Study
The study area is Singa Locality; it is one of the Localities of Sinnar State.
The total population in census 2008 is 155,071 while children aged (0
¡V 16) are 77898, (CBS, 2008) and the number of child dropout in Singa Locality is
523 (boy is 326 and girls is 197). (Sinnar State, 2008)
The study in two areas:
1: Urban area in Singa city unit.
2: Rural area (Om Shoka Unit and Om Bneen Unit).
Table 1.2 Shows the Number of Child Dropout by Administrative Units (2008 ¡V 2009)
Class
Singa City Om Bneen Om Shoka Total
Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls
First 14 9 0 2 10 5 24 16
second 16 6 14 6 10 11 40 23
Third 7 8 12 8 25 8 44 24
fourth 29 6 4 2 14 5 47 13
Fifth 22 5 4 7 19 13 45 25
Sixth 17 13 16 11 16 9 49 33
seventh 18 11 13 13 11 8 42 32
eighth 13 6 16 11 6 14 35 31
Total 136 64 79 60 111 73 326 197
Source: Ministry of Education, Sinnar State- 2008
1.7.3 Data Analysis
Data were collected from respondent by questionnaire; the Statistical
Package for Social Science (SPSS) was used to analyze the data. General
tabulation; including frequency distribution and percentage were used. Also
cross tabulation was used to test some association between the dependent
variable child dropout and socio economic set of independent variables.
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1.8 Organization of Thesis
The study is divided into four chapters:
- Chapter one is for going include the background, research questions,
research objectives, significance, methodology (conceptual
framework, schematic presentation and variables description),
sample design and sample size, data sources, area of study and data
analysis.
- Chapter two is literature review section that explores research
findings of similar studies.
- Chapter three presents data collection and analysis of survey result.
- Chapter four is conclusion and recommendation.
19
CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
Education is such a vital instrument in the development of an individual and the
society that it is cherished and fostered in every age and culture. Education can
be formal, informal or non-formal. It can be traditional and indigenous, or
modern and imported.
How ever, no matter the form it takes, education is the influence of one person,
or a group of persons, on others. Incidentally, it is erroneous to assume that
education is always the influence of the teacher on the students. And that it is a
positive factor. Every teacher also learns from his student, and the interaction
can produce negative consequences even if the original motive was to ensure
positive results. Education develops and cultivates character as well as the
intellect. This is why during university convocation ceremonies; the graduates
are presented for the award of degrees because they have been found worthy in
character and learning. (Education, 2007)
Strategies and methods used in the educative process are many varied. This is
why psychologists, philosophers and educationists advocate proper an adequate
training for those seeking to become teachers. Such professional training is
critical at the primary and secondary levels of education where teachers have to
cope with young children and adolescents at a very impressionable stage of the
development of their intellect and personality. (Education, 2007)
Education is much valued in society because it is a vehicle for imparting
knowledge and skills. But the acquisition of concepts and techniques should not
20
be an end in itself. The knowledge and skills must be put into practical in the
solution of human problems, in decision-making, in rational, judgment, in
administration of peace and justice. The successful accomplishment of the
central task of education depends on a delicate balance and adjustment of many
variable factors. Education is dealing with human beings whose minds
continuously react to personal needs, societal expectations, material
circumstances, and ever changing political economic realities. (Education, 2007)
2.2 Education
2.2.1 Definition of Education
There are many definitions of education:
1: Education is a fundamental human right as well as a catalyst for economic
growth and human development. (Okumu, 2008)
2: Education is generally seen as a powerful means to reduce poverty and
achieve economic growth. (Okumu, 2008)
3: Education is central to development; it empowers people and strengthens
nations. It is one of the most powerful instruments for reducing poverty and
inequality and helps lay a foundation for sustained economic growth.
(Education, 2007)
2.2.2 Education in Africa
The African education experience was strictly set up to prepare the young for
society in the African community and not necessarily for life outside of Africa.
The schooling system pre- European colonialism consisted of groups of older
people teaching aspects and rituals that would help them in adulthood. When
European colonialism and imperialism took place it began to change the
African educational system. Schooling was no longer just about rituals and rites
of passage, school would now mean earning an education that would allow
Africans to compete with countries such as the United States and those in
21
Europe. Africa would begin to try producing their own educated students as
other countries had. However, education in Africa is still less developed than
other parts of the world and many African countries have low rates of
participation. Schools often lack many basic facilities, and African universities
suffer from overcrowding and staff being lured away to Western countries by
higher pay and better conditions. (Education in Africa, 2007)
According to UNESCO's Regional overview on sub-Saharan Africa, in 2000
only 58% of children were enrolled in primary schools, the lowest enrollment
rate of any region. UNESCO also reported marked gender inequalities: in most
parts of Africa there is much higher enrollment by boys, but in some there are
actually more girls, due to sons having to stay home and tend to the family
farm. Africa has more than 40 million children, almost half the school-age child
population, receiving no schooling. Two-thirds of these are girls. The reports as
of 2005, forty percent of school-aged children in Africa do not attend primary
school and there are still 46 million school-aged African children that have
never stepped into a classroom. The regional report produced by the UNESCOBREDA
education sector analyst team in 2005, show that less than 10% of
African children are now excluded from the system. However 4 out 10 children
still did not complete primary school in 2002/2003. So, five years after the
World Education Forum and the adoption of the Millennium Goals, progress at
primary level is far from decisive. The analysis highlights that now principal
efforts should be directed to reducing the number of dropouts per level. It
appears also that geographical disparities (rural-urban areas) or economic
disparities (low income households/wealthy households) are more significant
and take longer to even out than gender disparities. From the quality point of
view, the existing data from school achievement evaluation programs and of
22
household surveys indicates very significant disparities in country performance,
between the different countries and within each country. (Education in Africa, 2007)
2.2.3 Education in Arab Countries
Education in Arab countries has led to successive increases in primary school
enrollment to 30 million by 1990 and to 39 million in 2000. Enrollment rates
vary reaching 80% in Jordan, Lebanon, Egypt, Syria, and range between 60%
and 80% in Libya and Saudi Arabia and score below 60% in Yemen, Morocco
and Sudan. Adult illiteracy rates are high particularly among females: it is
estimated that in 1995, there were about 65 million illiterate adults in the Arab
world; most were females, 41 million, and 24 million were men. Accordingly,
the region¡¦s average years of schooling of 2.8 compares unfavorably with 4.2
years for all developing countries. Drop out rates are high, reaching 53% in
Yemen and 28% in Iraq. Reasons for the drop out include unavailability of
transportation to and from schools especially in rural areas. Poverty and
financial justifications for sending children to work to supplement family
income is another reason. Furthermore, there exists an important gender gap
between enrollment and end-of-cycle completion rates reaching 20% in Tunisia,
25% in Morocco, 37% in Sudan and 45% in Yemen. (AL-Qudsi, 2002)
2.2.4 Importance of Education
The importance of education is quite clear. Education is the knowledge of
putting one's potentials to maximum use. One can safely say that a human being
is not in the proper sense till he is educated. This importance of education is
basically for two reasons. The first is that the training of a human mind is not
complete without education. Education makes man a right thinker. It tells man
how to think and how to make decision. The second reason for the importance
of education is that only through the attainment of education, man is enabled to
23
receive information from the external world; to acquaint him self with past
history and receive all necessary information regarding the present. Without
education, man is as though in a closed room and with education he finds
himself in a room with all its windows open towards outside world. (Maulana, 2009)
2.2.5 Quality of Education
The quality of education throughout the less developed world leaves a great
deal to be desired. High repeater, nonattendance, and dropout rates during the
early mean that a substantial proportion of educational effort and expenditure is
devoted to children who do not become even functionally literate. Poor physical
facilities, poorly trained teacher, rote learning, and irrelevant courses are only
too common. In many countries the educational system serves to widen further
the gulf between the upper and the lower classes because of the very limited
opportunities for (usually rural) children to proceed beyond primary education.
(Gavin, 1975)
2.2.6 History of Education in Sudan
The public and private education systems inherited by the government of Sudan
after independence was designed to provide civil servants and professionals to
serve the colonial administration, rather than to educate the Sudanese.
Moreover, the distribution of facilities, staff, and enrollment was biased in favor
of the needs of the administration and a Western curriculum. Since World War
II the demand for education had exceeded Sudan's education resources. At
independence in 1956, education accounted for only 15.5% of the Sudanese
budget, or ¢GSd45 million (Sudanese pounds), to support 1778 primary schools
(enrollment 208,688), 108 intermediate schools (enrollment 14,632), and 49
government secondary schools (enrollment 5,423). Higher education was
limited to the University of Khartoum, except for fewer than 1,000 students sent
24
abroad by wealthy parents or on government scholarships. By the late 1970s,
the government's education system had been largely reorganized. There were
some pre-primary schools, mainly in urban areas. The basic system consisted of
a six-year curriculum in primary schools and three-year curriculum in junior
secondary schools. From that point, qualified students could go on to one of
three kinds of schools: the three-year upper secondary, which prepared students
for higher education; commercial and agricultural technical schools; and
teacher-training secondary schools designed to prepare primary-school teachers.
The latter two institutions offered four-year programs. Postsecondary schools
included universities, higher technical schools, and intermediate teachertraining
schools for junior secondary teachers, and higher teacher-training
institutions for upper-secondary teachers. In 1980, despite the emphasis on
technical education proposed by the government and encouraged by various
international advisory bodies, there were only thirty-five technical schools in
Sudan, less than one-fifth the numbers of academic upper secondary schools. In
1976-1977 eight times as many students entered the academic stream as entered
the technical schools, creating a profound imbalance in the marketplace view
given the system's past emphasis on academic training, and the low status of
manual labor, at least among much of the Arab population. The technical
institutions were meant to include institutions for training skilled workers in
agriculture.
Moreover, prospective employers often found technical institution graduates
inadequately trained a consequence of sometimes irrelevant curricula, low
teacher morale, and lack of equipment. Performance may also have suffered
because of the low morale of students, many of whom tended to see this kind of
schooling as second choice at best; not surprising schools were directed to that
end, most of them turning out workers more useful in the urban areas except for
25
some. The hope for universal and compulsory education had not been realized
by the early 1980s, but as a goal it led to a more equitable distribution of
facilities and teachers in rural areas and in the south. During the 1980s, the
government established more schools at all levels and with them, more teachertraining
institutions, although these were never sufficient to provide adequate
staff. But the process was inherently slow and was made slower by limited
funds and by the inadequate compensation for staff; teachers who could find a
market for their skills elsewhere, including places outside Sudan, did not remain
teachers within the Sudanese system. (Wikipedia, 2009)
The proliferation of upper-level technical institutions has not dealt with what
most experts saw as Sudan's basic education problem: providing a primary
education to as many Sudanese children as possible. Establishing more primary
schools was, in this view, more important that achieving equity in the
distribution of secondary schools. Even more important was the development of
a primary-school curriculum that was geared to Sudanese experience and took
into account that most of those who completed six years of schooling did not go
further. The realistic assumption was that Sudan's resources were limited and
that expenditures on the post primary level limited expenditures on the primary
level, leaving most Sudanese children with an inadequate education. In the early
1990s this situation had changed. (Wikipedia, 2009)
2.2.7 Levels of Education
In Sudan the education system is structured as follows:
Basic Education level
This Including:
1: Pre School Education (khalwas and kindergartens) for two years starting at
the age of 4 years.
26
2: Basic Education the first grade pupils enter at the age of 6-7, and it consists
of 8 grades , each year there is more academic efforts and main subjects added
plus more school methods improvements .by the 8'th grade a student is 13-14
years old ready to take the certificate exam's and entering high school.
Secondary Education Level
This includes two types of education:
1: Academic Secondary Education: This extends for three years at the end of
which the students sit for the Sudan certificate exam and compete to join higher
education, universities and higher institute both academic and technical.
The student's ages are about 14-15 to 17-18.
2: Technical Secondary Education: it comprises four types: commercial,
industrial, agricultural, and women studies. (Educational Statistic, 2007)
Universities:
There are many great universities in Sudan such as the Khartoum University;
the structure Sudan education system went though many changes in the late
1980's and early 1990's. (Wikipedia, 2009)
2.2.8 Basic Education
Refers to the whole range of educational activities taking place in various
settings (formal, non formal and informal), that aim to meet basic learning
needs. According to the International Standard Classification of Education
(ISCED), basic education comprises primary education (first stage of basic
education) and lower secondary education (second stage). In countries
(developing countries in particular), Basic Education often includes also preprimary
education and/or adult literacy programs. (Education, 2007)
27
Basic education is a fundamental role in the country's economic, cultural, social
and political development. They are central to the strategy of equity and
national unity, and vital for economic modernization and international
competitiveness. Reform of the educational system and of its administration is
therefore necessary, as is the implementation of coherent and forceful state
policies in the field of education, in order to achieve the following objectives:
- To affirm and disseminate the moral and cultural values and the concepts and
behavior patterns.
- To avoid the perpetuation of poverty and of social, ethnic, sexual and
geographical forms of discrimination, particularly those which arise from the
divide between urban and rural society?
- To contribute to the application of technical and scientific progress and,
consequently, to the achievement of higher productivity, the creation of more
jobs and increased income for the population, and beneficial integration into the
world economy. (Education, 2007)
In the Sudan basic education is free and compulsory for children aged 6 to 13
years. Primary education consists of eight years, followed by three years of
secondary education. The former educational ladder 6 + 3 + 3 was changed in
1992. The primary language at all levels is Arabic. Schools are concentrated in
urban areas. Basic education In the North, the gross enrolment rate increased
from 60 per cent in 2004 to 68 per cent in 2007.3 In the South; enrolment has
almost tripled, from 343,000 in 2005 to 850,000 in 2006(4) and to over 1.2
million in 2007, with at least 30 per cent being girls. Gender ratio in primary
education is currently 0.91 in the North and 0.43 in the South. Enrolment in
Sudan's primary schools continued to increase during 2008 - in the north of
Sudan, nearly 557,000 additional children (44 per cent of them girls) enrolled in
28
Grade 1 during the year, while in Southern Sudan enrolment increased by an
estimated 400,000. However, girls' enrolment rates in Southern Sudan still
remain at 2006 levels-approximately 34 percent. (Basic education, 2006)
Educational Facilities:
Both the quantity and quality of the available educational facilities are
important for educational participation, especially of specific groups like the
poor and girls. The case for quantity seems obvious: when there are no schools
or teachers available, children are not able to go to school. Also the distance to
school is expected to play a role. The effects of distance are more likely to be
severe for girls, partly due to parents¡¦ concern for their daughters¡¦ safety, which
could become more of a hurdle once girls reach puberty. The same. Parents
often realize that their children gain less from low quality education, and might
therefore be more inclined to take their children out of school. If mothers
perceive the quality of the local school to be better, their daughters have a lower
chance to drop out. In line with various previous studies we expect the presence
of female teachers to be especially important for girls.
School drop out might also be influenced by the way the education system is
organized in a country. There are indications that the duration of primary
education might be a particularly important factor to explain drop out at a
young age in countries with high drop out rates. Because parents are more
likely to allow their children to drop out of school after completing a level, the
number of years of education completed in these countries might be higher if
the duration of primary education is longer. For this reason in 1997 Turkey
extended the duration of primary education from six to eight years. Since that
time, educational participation in Turkey has increased considerably, but
because the extension was accompanied by other measures aimed at increasing
participation, we do not know to what extent the increase was due to the longer
29
duration of primary education. By testing whether drop out-rates are higher
directly after completing primary education, we hope to be able to draw more
solid conclusions in this respect. (Janine, 2009)
2.3 Child Dropout of School
2.3.1 Define Dropout:
There is no universally accepted definition of child school dropout; there are
many different of definition:
1. Dropout¡¨ is a student who leaves a specific level of education system without
achieving first qualification.
2. UNESCO: Dropping out¡¨ or .early school leaving" is understood as leaving
school education without completing the started cycle or program.
3. School dropouts were children in the compulsory school age that were either:
I. Not in school in the end of school year.
II. Not finishing the last grade at the compulsory school level.
III. Not registered for the new school year.
IV. Have not got certificate of education from the respective age group.
(T. Husen)
The Virginia Department of Education in the United States defines a dropout as
a student who:
1. Was enrolled in school at some time during the previous school year.
2. Was not enrolled at the beginning of the current school year.
3. Did not graduate from high school or complete a state or division¡V approved
education program.
4. Does not meet any of the following exclusionary conditions:
-Transferred to another public school division, private school, or state/division¡V
approved education program; or
30
-Left the country; or
- Is temporarily absent due to illness, suspension, or enrollment in a school¡V
approved alternate education program; or died. (Michael, 2009)
The concept of out-of-school children implies that there is a group of children
that should be in school but they are not. This group is recognized both
nationally and internationally as primary school-age children. (Michael, 2009)
2.3.2 The Factors of School Dropout
Factors leading to school drop out are mainly two: individual and institutional
ones. The former include: child, family background, community. The latter
include: education system, school premises, school climate, and curriculum.
The relationship between those risk factors and students leaving school is not
that obvious and automatic; therefore, if a student has a certain socioeconomic
background he/she is not pre-destined to drop out; he may drop out
for personal reasons. A student with strong personality and remarkable
intelligence may leave school because of external reasons, which are due to
his environment. (School drop-out, 2009)
2.3.3 Individual Factors:
1. Personal:
- With poor academic achievement
- With poor school attendance
- Students who have low self-esteem or self-efficacy
- Drug or alcohol problem
- Health of students
- Age of students
2. Economic Socio-culture
- Low socioeconomic backgrounds
31
- Students who attend school in large cities
- Students who live in a community whose resources to support at-risk
youngsters are very few.
3. Family:
- Students who move or change schools frequently
- Students families with no fixed residence
- a family to support
- Students who have friends or family members that dropped out
- Parents education
- Health status of parents
- Parents occupations. (School drop-out, 2009)
2.3.3.1 Personal Factors:
Risk of dropping out is linked to negative self-perceptions or low self-esteem,
low aspirations. Students who leave school often exhibit poor academic
achievement and poor school attendance. Many students who drop out express
negative attitudes about school. They consider the coursework irrelevant, don't
like school, don't get along with teachers or other students, don't feel safe
and/or don't feel they fit in. (School drop-out, 2009)
A: Determinants of Low Enrollment and Wastage:
The constraints that contribute to low enrollment and school wastage can be
categorized as:
1. in-school-factors, e.g., availability of schools, quality and efficiency, school
process, etc.; and
2. out-of-school-factors, direct costs, opportunity costs and costs related to
cultural demand. (Kowsar, 1995)
32
In-School Factors:
Lack of physical access to schooling is a major cause of under-enrollment in
primary schools in developing countries. Children often do not go to school
because places are not available or schools are too far away from home.
Availability of school places within a reasonable distance is a prerequisite for
children's, especially girls', school participation.
In addition to access, cultural norms often act as an impediment to girls'
schooling. In such environments, girls' enrollment may be dependent on
access to single-sex schools, separate facilities, as lavatories and female
teachers. (School drop-out, 2009)
The quality of schooling is also an important determinant of participation and
retention. Poor quality teaching, curriculum, instructional materials and school
infrastructure can have an adverse effect on student learning. In Brazil and
Colombia, for example, 80 percent of variances in student achievement have
been attributed to school quality variables. (School drop-out, 2009)
Out-of-School Factors:
The cost of schooling can be considerable for poor parents. The lower the
family's income, the more prohibitive these costs become. The direct costs to
parents of schooling include fees, books, transport and clothing. Actual
expenditures on schooling amount to about 4 percent of household consumption
in low-income countries, 6 percent in middle-income countries and 8 percent in
industrial countries. There is wide variance around the mean.
In India and Pakistan, for example, with per capita GNP of about $350,
education accounts for 3-4 percent of household consumption compared with
9 percent in Kenya ($370) and 13 percent in Zambia ($290). Among counties
with per capita GNP of $1,200- $1,300, education accounts for 9 percent of
household consumption in Tunisia, 1 percent in Turkey, and 6 percent in Peru.
33
In general, direct costs are similar for girls and boys. But in some countries,
observation of cultural norms increases these costs for girls (e.g., parents'
reluctance to send daughters to school without proper attire increases the cost
of girls' school attendance). (School drop-out, 2009)
B: Age and Gender of the Child:
Age is one of the most important variables to be considered in the analysis of
children out of primary schools. The age of the child is first used by countries
to determine the beginning and end of the primary school cycle. The current
(ISCED) informs the defined and agreed-upon ages for the primary and
secondary education cycles. Under normal circumstances, it is expected that
children attend the corresponding grade and level for their age if they started
the first grade of primary school at the corresponding age and if no grade
repetition is observed. The reality is different, however, in most of the
countries, particularly in the developing world. (Elizabeth, 1993)
C: Health and HIV/AIDS Impact:
In many resource-poor countries, educational institutions represent the most
coherent system embracing children and provide the primary venue for healthrelated
interventions. As never before, the value placed on education in
societies is being emphasized as agrarian pursuits have become commercialized
or made nonviable. In resource-poor countries, the impact of technology is
differentially affecting parts of society. On the one hand, technologic advance
offers an unprecedented opportunity to the educated, but on the other, it
accelerates inequality with the less educated. Urbanization combines
with the technology revolution further to challenge accustomed ways that may
stress individuals and families. (Rahim, 1989)
34
Children and adolescents, as students or as part of a family, experience new
stresses that convey either advantage or disadvantage, depending on access,
intelligence, and resources. In response to these changes in society, resiliencebuilding
programs in schools, along with primary care health programs in
communities have evolved. While the emphasis on education may be profound
in urban settings in resource-poor countries, the role of traditional healing for
child mental health disorders, especially in rural settings, remains powerful.
Although health is itself an outcome, it can also be viewed as a pathway by
which poverty influences other child outcomes, such as cognitive ability and
school achievement. As discussed previously, poor children experience
increased rates of low birth weight and elevated blood lead levels when
compared with non poor children. These conditions have, in turn, been
associated with reduced intelligence quotient (IQ) and other measures of
cognitive functioning in young children and, in the case of low birth weight,
with increased rates of learning disabilities, grade retention, and school dropout
in older children and youths. (Jeanne, 1997)
In sub-Sahara Africa, Russia and parts of Asia, acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS) is now a pandemic. Special attention needs to be given to
the consequences of AIDS on children and youth. The direct impact on
children and adolescents is evident in India, other parts of Asia, and Africa,
where sexual exploitation has led to a high incidence of youth infection with
the inevitable outcome of death as a result of lack of available treatment. An
estimated 1.5 million children less than 15 years old are living with human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection or AIDS. (Michael, 2009)
35
2.3.3.2 Economic and Social-cultural Factors Affect Dropout:
Children from families with more socio-economic resources have a higher
probability of staying in school; found that economic constraints create
problems of completion even for children whose parents are aware of the
importance of education. They found poverty to be especially a constraint on
completion for child from illiterate parents. For wealthier families, the direct
costs associated with education, such as fees, books, and uniforms, are less
likely to be an obstacle. Opportunity costs of children not being able to help at
home, at the family farm or by earning additional income through child labor
are also likely to be less important to them. Moreover, wealthier families are
less affected by credit constraints. Imperfect credit markets have been found to
be a major obstacle for the education of children from poor families.
Besides household income, also the educational level and labor market position
of the parents is expected to play a role. With regard to parental education, there
is ample evidence that children from better educated parents more often go to
school and stay in school. Parents who have reached a certain educational level
might want their children to achieve at least the same level. For the educational
enrollment of girls, the education of the mother might be especially important.
Mothers who have succeeded in completing a certain level of education have
experienced the value of education and know that it is within the reach of girls
to complete that level. Regarding father¡¦s labor market position, we expect
fathers who are in salaried employment, especially if they work in a nonmanual
occupation, to be more aware of the importance of education and hence
to invest more in their children¡¦s education and to be more likely to motivate
them to do their best and to stay in school. Also the children of those fathers
themselves may be more aware of the benefits of education. For parents who
are self-employed, such as (small) farmers, the opportunity costs of keeping
36
their children in school are believed to become more important after a certain
threshold. Consequently, they are more likely to expect their older children to
stay home and help out in the family business. It seems plausible that children
who are supposed to assist in the household more often drop out of school. For
example, if their mother is working, girls might be counted on to do the
household chores and be taken out of school after they received some
education. On the other hand, employment of the mother might increase her
power within the household, and there are reasons to expect this to increase the
chances of her children to get an education. According to the resource theory of
conjugal power the degree to which partners can influence important household
decisions depends on the extent to which they bring in valued resources into the
marriage. For instance found for Uganda that women who, through their access
to micro-credit, where engaged in daily income-generating activities, gained the
power to do things that social norm previously denied them. This indicates that
mothers who are gainfully employed and hence contribute to the household
income have more influence on family decisions than women who are not
employed. It seems likely that such more independent women may be better
able to create the possibility for their children and especially for their daughters
to stay in school. On the other hand, when the mother is forced to work because
of poverty, the daughters may have to take over her household tasks and
therefore have fewer chances to stay in school. The effects of mother¡¦s
employment may thus differ depending on the circumstances. (Janine, 2009)
Household Structure:
Besides socio-economic characteristics of the parents, also the demographic
structure of the household might influence educational attainment. Competition
for the scarce educational resources among sons and daughters and older and
younger siblings might reduce the chance of individual children to stay in
37
school. There is evidence that in developing countries the cost of high fertility
is borne by older siblings, rather than by the parents.
The younger children in such families have more opportunities to stay in
school, because the older children do the household chores or contribute to the
household income by earning some extra money.
That means not only birth order but also the sex of sibling's influences
enrollment. Their findings show that having older sisters increases the
likelihood to go to school, whereas having younger brothers decreases that
probability. They also found that boys compete only with brothers, whereas
girls face double competition; first with their brothers, then with their sisters.
Consequently, older sisters are the most disadvantaged. (Janine, 2009)
The number of siblings a child has might also be important. In Western
societies and some developing countries, family size tends to be negatively
correlated to educational enrollment, probably because the available resources
have to be divided among more children. The more children people have, the
less time and resources they can devote to each individual child. However this is
not the case in all situations. For example, in rural Botswana, the number of 7-
14 year old children in the household was found to be positively related to
enrollment. The reason for this may be that with more children, there are also
more helping hands at home, which increases the chance that at least some
children stay in school. The same effect might be found in extended families,
where relatives may help out in the household and add to the household income,
making it easier for children to stay in school. (Janine, 2009)
Children whose father or mother is missing from the household are more likely
to drop out of school, because they might have to replace the work done by the
missing parent. In situations where children are required to do household chores
or to contribute to the household income, it is possible that if there are adopted
or foster children in the household, the parents may put a disproportionately
38
large part of those duties on the shoulders of these children instead of on their
own children. Consequently, we expect biological children to have better
chances of staying in school. (Janine, 2009)
1. Cultural/Social Issues Factors:
Relate to socio-cultural conditions. Both the parents who use or send their
children to work and those who employ them do not recognize the harm they
are doing and there is no effective social or moral sanction against this practice.
If a family lived in a more advanced socio-cultural setting, then moral sanctions
would operate against this practice and would, on the margins, have a
resistance. How do we measure the socio-cultural factors that make
communities accept this practice? We have assumed that these factors are well
captured by the level of female literacy. This implies that other things being
equal, countries with highest female illiteracy would also have the highest
tolerance for child labor practices. Female literacy works through several
underlying channels, such as poverty, lack of information and knowledge about
future benefits of education and the future opportunities that a child in work
will be denied. Besides, low literacy will not allow individuals to question
traditional practices. (JAY, 2007)
2. Poverty Factors:
Relate to family poverty. As the literature review has shown. Poor families
depend on the earnings from child employment to meet their food and other
essential needs. We use proportion of population below dollar a day as an
indicator of poverty in countries under development. We also tried food
deficiency index and stunting, also to represent poverty status. (JAY, 2007)
39
3. Economic Factors:
In families¡¦ decisions to engage their children in work may arise from economic
conditions in the country. If the size of the economy is large (offering greater
employment opportunities) and/or the economy is growing fast, then there
might be an expectation on the part of the families that child education could
improve their future earnings. It may make investing in education to look more
attractive. Families may then be ready to undertake even hardships for sending
their children to school and not keep them working. (JAY, 2007)
4. Access to Education Factors:
Child employment and its reward themselves may be a factor in decision to
send or not to send a child to school. Thus, if there is a no school within a
reasonable distance, a family would hesitate to withdraw a child from work
which is meant to hedge the entire family against seasonal poverty. A family
may like to send its children to school but there may be no access, which may
then result in the family keeping the child engaged in work. The supply factors
therefore play a role in schooling. (JAY, 2007)
There can be several supply factors influencing schooling decisions, such as
distance of school, fees and charges, quality of education generally measured by
student-teacher ratio, female teachers, school environment and curriculum, as
well as the prospects of sending the child to higher classes when, as family may
believe, returns on education become more significant. (JAY, 2007)
2.3.3.3 Family Factors:
Certain family circumstances are associated with higher risk of dropping out.
Children in single parent or impoverished homes, whose families are mobile,
who experience trauma (e.g. divorce, abuse, illness, unemployment), or have a
family history of dropouts have higher risk for dropping out. Children may
40
contribute to the family income or may assist some aged family members.
Mobility also adds to students' risk of dropping out: they experience serious
disorientation after continuous moving. Gender roles as reinforced by family
also can contribute to school drop out even though girls are potential high
achievers. Here is a dramatic generational conflict within the family since the
mother demand the daughter be at home and the daughter aims at something
more, via education. (School drop-out, 2009)
A. Parents¡¦ Education:
The level of parents' education has influence over children¡¦s involvement in
hazardous form of labor. Most parents of exploited children had not completed
formal education; many of them were illiterate. Impact of parent¡¦s education on
schooling of children show that the children of more educated parents are more
likely to be enrolled and more likely to progress further through school. The
impact differs by gender, the education of the father increases the expected
level of school retention of boys, and that of the mother¡¦s enhances the
educational attainment of girls. Those Parental decisions do affect children
retention. Students whose parents monitor and regulate their activities, provide
emotional support, encourage independent decision making and are generally
more involved in their schooling are less likely to dropout of school. Taking
into account of the gender dimension of dropouts, UNICEF, (2005) notes that
girls are more likely to dropout of school than boys and that pupils whose
mother¡¦s have not attained any level of education will most likely dropout of
school. (Jeanne, 1997)
B. Residence:
The importance of place of residence, as with child, is due to urban versus rural
population distribution in each country or region. As might be expected, more
children were found to be out of school in rural areas (30 per cent) than in urban
areas (18 per cent). Because most primary school- age children in the
41
developing world live in rural areas, it is also not surprising to find that. In sub-
Saharan Africa 82 per cent of children who are out of primary school reside in
rural areas. In all these regions, the proportion of children out of primary school
ranges from 1.5 to almost 2 times higher among children living in rural
households than their urban counterparts. In 24 countries of these regions, the
ratio is substantially greater than 2, particularly in Ethiopia (3.2), Eritrea (3.0),
Burkina Faso and Nicaragua (2.9), Iraq (2.7), and Guinea, Guinea Bissau, and
Malawi (2.5). In three regions ¡V West and Central Africa,
South Asia, and Eastern and Southern Africa ¡V more than 80 per cent of
children out of primary school reside in rural households (81 per cent, 84 per
cent and 87 percent, respectively), compared to 60 per cent in Latin America
and the Caribbean. Countries with notable percentages rural out-of-school
children include Ethiopia (96 per cent), Burkina Faso (95 per cent), Malawi (94
per cent), India and Bangladesh (84 per cent), and Pakistan (81 per cent). These
countries represent substantial numbers of out-of school children in rural areas
as a result of their population size (e.g., India) or their relatively low levels of
primary school attendance (Burkina Faso and Ethiopia). The net effect of place
of residence on the probability of school attendance is of relevance for a limited
number of countries once other socio- wealth are taken into consideration.
(Elizabeth, 1993)
C. Students who have Members that dropped out:
While some have found out that work can contribute to a student dropping out,
others have showed that student employment begins to correlate with dropping
out when the student regularly works over 14 hours per week. Other research
place the critical level for employment higher, at 20 hours per week, with the
likelihood of dropping out increasing with the number of hours worked.
(Kowsar, 1995)
42
2.4 Regional Profiles
The following section presents data on out-of-school children by region and for
individual countries. Wherever data are available, the report distinguishes
between the numbers of primary school-age children completely out of school
and those still in preprimary education. This was possible for about half of the
countries, which were able to provide data by age for pre-primary school
participation. (UNESCO, 2005)
2.4.1 South Asia:
South Asia is home to one-quarter of the world¡¦s primary school-age
population. It is also the region with the highest absolute number of out-ofschool
children: 42 million of the 162 million school-age children in the region
(or 26%) were out of school in 2001/02. These boys and girls account for 36%
of the world¡¦s out-of-school children. In relative terms, on average one out of
four school-age children in the region did not attend school in the reference
year. (UNESCO, 2005)
2.4.2 West and Central Africa:
West and Central Africa has the highest prevalence of primary school-age
children out of school.
Although the region¡¦s primary school-age population accounts for just 8% of
the global total, the region has 20% of the world¡¦s out-of-school children ¡V the
second highest share after South
Asia. In absolute terms, 24 million out-of-school children live in the region. The
proportion in the region is 45% - or almost every second child. (UNESCO, 2005)
43
2.4.3 Middle East and North Africa:
The Middle East and North Africa region is home to 8.8 million out-of-school
children, or 20% of all primary school-age children in the region. There is,
however, marked variation among countries. The highest proportions of out of
school children are found in Djibouti and Sudan, with 65% and 51%,
respectively. They are followed by Yemen and Saudi Arabia, with more than
40% each. On the other hand, the proportion is less than 10% in nine countries,
e.g. Algeria, Egypt, Libya and Syria. Almost all countries in the region report
very low rates of primary school-age children who are still in pre-primary
education. (UNESCO, 2005)
2.4.4 East Asia and the Pacific:
Participation rates are generally high in East Asia and the Pacific. China is the
most populous country in the region ¡V with more than 60% of the region¡¦s
children ¡V and it has a high participation rate (96%) for primary school. Eleven
other countries also report that more than 95% of all primary school age
children are in school. However, there are several exceptions, such as
Cambodia and Papua New Guinea, where some 30% of primary school-age
children are out of school. (UNESCO, 2005)
2.4.5 Latin America and the Caribbean:
In Latin America and the Caribbean, only 5% of all primary school-age
children, about 3 million, are not in school. About half of the countries in the
region report more than 95% of all children in school. (UNESCO, 2005)
2.4.6 Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent
States:
Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States is the
region with the smallest population of primary school-age children ¡V 25 million.
Nonetheless, almost 3 million are not in school. At a rate of 11%, the share is
44
twice that of Latin America and the Caribbean, as well as that of industrialized
countries. This demonstrates that the high participation rates typical under
Soviet and communist rule have not been maintained in some countries.
Countries with the highest proportion ¡V more than 15% ¡V of primary school-age
children not in school include Azerbaijan, the Republic of Moldova, Serbia and
Montenegro, as well as Uzbekistan. In terms of absolute numbers, most of the
region¡¦s out-of-school children live in its two most populous countries, the
Russian Federation (0.5 million) and Turkey (1 million). With exclusion rates
of 12% and 11%, respectively, both countries are close to the regional average.
Four countries in the region report participation rates greater than 95%:
Albania, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Kazakhstan and
Tajikistan. In Belarus and the Republic of Moldova, most of the primary
school-age children considered to be out of school is participating in preprimary
education. (UNESCO, 2005)
2.4.7 Industrialized Countries:
Not surprisingly, the lowest proportions of children not in school - less than 4%
- can be found in the industrialized countries, totaling 2.6 million children. Of
the 36 countries for which data are available, 30 countries report that more than
95% of the primary school-age cohorts are participating in primary or
secondary educational. (UNESCO, 2005)
2.5.1Dropout and Absenteeism in Sudan:
School dropouts and absenteeism are serious problems. The average annual
completion rates for the period 1996-1999 were 53.6% for both sexes, 50.8%
for boys, and 57.2% for girls. School facilities (e.g., buildings, teaching
materials) and training of teachers, which directly affect academic attainment
and educational efficiency, are extremely poor in the vast majority of schools.
The percentage of trained teachers in northern Sudan, which was 75% in 1991,
45
dropped to 68.3% in 1996 and to 54.7% in 1999. Regional variations are
enormous, e.g. 86% in West Darfur, 67.1% in North Kordofan, and 50% in
Gezira State. (Abdel Atil, 2003)
2.5.2 Determine the Level and Characteristics of the Child Labor in Sudan:
According to the survey of migration and labor force 10.1% of the children 6-
14 are working all over the Northern Sudan. Child labor doesn't represent a
phenomenon in urban areas, they are only 2.6% and this is different from the
situation in the other developing countries in which child labor is concentrated
in the urban areas like in Egypt as example. No sex differential, that female as
well as males is working mainly in the traditional sector as Eastern, Kordofan
and Darfur states represent the most agricultural areas in Sudan, Poverty is the
main cause of child labor, and besides the restriction of traditions (most of the
child labors are family workers) according to the present study the drop out
represent a big proportion of child labor and many of them work because they
drop out or because they have no place in the schools. The main activity of
child labor (87.8%) is agriculture. About 90% of the children are working in the
private sector. (Omar, 2001)
46
CHAPTER THREE
Analysis of Survey Results
3.1-Characteristics of study population
3.1.1- Type of Units
The study population represents an optimum allocation sample of Singa
Locality in Sinnar State. The Locality includes the following Administrative
Unit there are:
1: Singa City Unit (Urban).
2: Om Shoka Unit (Rural).
3: Om Bneen Unit (Rural).
Table 3.1.1 shows the frequency and percentage of the units.
Table 3.1.1 Shows Name of Unit
Name of Unit Frequency Percent
Singa City Unit 100 33.3
Om Shoka Unit 100 33.3
Om Bneen Unit 100 33.3
Total 300 100
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.1.1: Names of Units
Om Bneen Unit
Om Shoka Unit
Singa City Unit
47
3.1.2 Type of Residence
Singa Locality of Localities are rural it means that rural population have a
higher wisher of the people in the sample rural population represent 66.7%
rural.
Table 3.1.2 Shows Type of Residence
Type of Residence Frequency Percent
Urban 100 33.3
Rural 200 66.7
Total 300 100
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.1.2: Type of Residence
3.1.3 Type of Gender
The sample is gender insensitive in Singa Locality is prominently male 60.7%.
Table 3.1.3 Shows Type of Gender
Type of Gender Frequency Percent
Male 182 60.7
Female 118 39.3
Total 300 100
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
rural
urban
48
Figure 3.1.3: Type of Gender
3.1.4 Child Age Group
The table (3.1.4) shows the percent of child age group, 35.7% less than 10 and
2.3% over 15. The majority of them 62% are the in broad age group (10 ¡V 14).
The mean age is 10.56, with standard deviation 2.37. This gives confidence
interval as (10.29 ¡V 10.8). From my experience, Central Bureau of Statistics
(CBS), I observe in the rural areas in Sinnar State that a number of children at
school age are not at school.
Table 3.1.4 Shows Child Age Group
Child Age Group Frequency Percent
Less than 10 107 35.7
( 10 ¡V 14 ) 186 62
Above 15 7 2.3
Total 300 100
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.1.4: Child Age Group
female
male
15 above
(10 - 14)
less than 10
49
3.1.5 Father's Age Group
Table (3.1.5) shows that all represents are aged over 34. Those who is 0.3%,
with only 1.0% over 85. The majority of them 22.3% are the broad age group
(65 ¡V69). The mean age is 61.07 with standard deviation 10.89. This gives
confidence interval as (59.84 ¡V 62.30). It look that the age fathers of the
children had a late marriage. This may lower of children schooling.
Table 3.1.5 Shows Father's Age Group
Father's Age Group Frequency Percent
Less than 34 1 0.3
( 35 ¡V 39) 2 0.7
( 40 ¡V 44 ) 23 7.7
( 45 ¡V 49) 26 8.7
( 50 ¡V 54 ) 19 6.3
( 55 ¡V 59 ) 40 13.3
( 60 ¡V 64 ) 60 20.0
( 65 ¡V 69 ) 67 22.3
( 70 ¡V 74 ) 24 8.0
( 75 ¡V 79 ) 28 9.3
( 80 ¡V 84 ) 7 2.3
Above 85 3 1.0
Total 300 100
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
50
3.1.6 Father's Education
Table (3.1.6) show the percent of respondent is education 29.7% in primary
level and 1.0% in university level. The level of father's education is associate of
child continue to complete education, because the father have reached a certain
educational level might want their children to achieve at least the same level.
Table 3.1.6 Shows Father's Education
Level of Education Frequency Percent
Illiterate 75 25.0
Primary 89 29.7
Intermediate 76 25.3
Secondary 57 19.0
University 3 1.0
Total 300 100
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.1.5: Father's Age Group
85 above
( 80 - 84 )
( 75 - 79 )
( 70 - 74)
( 65 - 69 )
( 60 - 64 )
( 55 - 59 )
( 50 - 54 )
( 45 - 49 )
( 40 - 44 )
( 35 - 39 )
less than 34
Percent
30
20
10
0
51
Figure 3.1.6: Father's Education
University
Secondary
Intermediate
Primary
Illiterate
Percent
40
30
20
10
0
52
3.1.7 Father's Occupation
Table (3.1.7) show that the father's of occupation 44.3% is father's labor and
7.3% business, when considering future rewards, fathers and children might
estimate future employment prospects by looking at the current local labor
market situation. In districts where labor is a major sector, children are less
likely to pursue further education since most available jobs require little
education.
Table 3.1.7 Shows Father's Occupation
Father's Occupation Frequency Percent
Labor 133 44.3
Farming 76 25.3
Business 22 7.3
Other Job 69 23.0
Total 300 100
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.1.7: Father's Occupation
Other job
Business
Farming
Labour
53
3.1.8 Mother's Age Group
Table (3.1.8) shows a frequency distribution of mother's age group; the age
group (25 ¡V 29) is 1.3%, and only 1% over 70. The majority of them 32.3%
are in broad age group (45 ¡V 49). The mean age is 50.23 with standard deviation
8.29. This gives confidence interval as (49.29 ¡V 51.17).
Table 3.1.8 Shows Mother's Age Group
Mother's Age Group Frequency Percent
( 25 ¡V 29 ) 4 1.3
( 30 ¡V 34 ) 11 3.7
( 35 ¡V 39 ) 16 5.3
( 40 ¡V 44 ) 24 8.0
( 45 ¡V 49 ) 97 32.3
( 50 ¡V 54 ) 56 18.7
( 55 ¡V 59 ) 46 15.3
( 60 ¡V 64 ) 40 13.3
( 65 ¡V 69 ) 5 1.7
Above 70 1 0.3
Total 300 100
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Ffigure 3.1.8: Mother's Age Group
70 above
( 65 - 69 )
( 60 - 64 )
( 55 - 59 )
( 50 - 54 )
(45 - 49 )
( 40 - 44 )
( 35 - 39 )
( 30 - 34 )
( 25 - 29 )
Percent
40
30
20
10
0
54
55
3.1.9 Mother's Education
Table (3.1.9) shows the frequency distribution the of level of mother's
education 1.3% in university, and 33.7% Illiterate. This means that the level of
mother's education is associate of children education, because the mothers who
have succeeded in completing a certain level of education have experienced the
value of education and know that it is within the reach of children to complete
that level.
Table 3.1.9 Shows Level of Mother's Education
Level of Education Frequency Percent
Illiterate 101 33.7
Primary 93 31.0
Intermediate 67 22.3
Secondary 35 11.7
University 4 1.3
Total 300 100
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.1.9 : Mother's Education
University
Secondary
Intermediate
Primary
Illiterate
Percent
40
30
20
10
0
56
3.1.10 Mother's Occupation
In this study there are two questions about mother's occupation. Question one
obtain the status of mother work whose they she is work or not. The result in
table (3.1.10) shows that the 51% are employment and 49% are unemployment.
The other question about the type of occupation as shows that 23.7% are labor
scatter.
Table 3.1.10 Shows Mother's Work
Work Frequency Percent
Yes 153 51
No 147 49
Total 300 100
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Table 3.1.11 Shows Type of Mother's Occupation
Type of Occupation Frequency Percent
Unemployment 147 49.0
Labor 71 23.7
Farming 59 19.7
Business 10 3.3
Other Job 13 4.3
Total 300 100
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.1.11 :Type of Mother's Occupation
Other job
Business
Farming
Labour
Unemployment Percent
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
57
3.2 About Family
3.2.1 Family Income
Certain family income circumstances are associated with higher risk of
dropping out; table (3.2.1) shows that frequency distribution of family income
7% low income SDG 250, and SDG 400 high income 11.3%. The majority of
income is 37.7%. The mean family income is 330.93 with standard deviation
39.78. This gives confidence interval as (326.42 - 335.44).
Table 3.2.1 Shows Family Income
Family Income Frequency Percent
250 21 7.0
300 133 37.7
340 7 2.3
350 85 28.3
360 40 13.3
400 34 11.3
Total 300 100
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.2.1: Family Income
400 360 350 340 300 250 Percent
40
30
20
10
0
58
3.2.2 Family Member Works
When the family is extended or number with grown sons and daughter, we
sought information about their economic activity the result shows that 72.7%
member job help in raising family income real while is a significant factor in
the education and the family children.
Table 3.2.2 Shows Member Works
Employment Frequency Percent
Yes 218 72.7
No 82 27.3
Total 300 100
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.2.2: Family Occupation
no
yes
59
3.2.3Disposable Income
This variable may be a better measure it gives the real income expended
including expenditure in education. Table (3.2.3) shows that the majority of
disposable income SDG (200-250) are 39.3%. The mean of disposable income
296.33 with standard deviation 53.79. This gives confidence interval as
(290.23 - 302.43).
Table 3.2.3 Shows Disposable Income
Disposable Income Frequency Percent
( 200- 250 ) 118 39.3
( 260 ¡V 300 ) 64 21.3
( 310 ¡V 350 ) 48 16.0
( 360 ¡V 400) 70 23.3
Total 300 100
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.2.2: Disposable Income
( 360 - 400 )
( 310 - 350)
( 260 - 300 )
( 200 - 250 )
60
3.2.4 Expenditure on Child Schooling
This variables shows that expenditure of family on child school in the low are
0.3% in the month and high expenditure is 26%. The mean of the expenditure is
34.70 with standard deviation 8.93. This gives confidence interval as
(33.68 - 35.72).
Table 3.2.4 Shows Expenditure of Education
Expenditure Frequency Percent
20 47 15.7
25 1 0.3
30 78 26.0
35 64 21.3
40 47 15.7
45 33 11.0
50 30 10.0
Total 300 100
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.2.4 :Expenditure of Education
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Percent
30
20
10
0
61
3.3 Cross Tabulation
3.3.1 Child Dropout * Type of Residence
Type of residence is influences the likelihood that a child will be out of school.
The cross tabulation between the child dropout and the type of residence shows
that is a highly significant association between two. P-value= 0.000,
Coefficient interval= 5%. This means that all these variables are strongly
associated with type of residence and child dropout.
Table 3.3.1 Shows Cross Tabulation between Child Dropout and Type of Residence
Type of
Residence
Child Dropout
Family Need
to Work
School
Distance
Expenditure on
Education
Custom and Tradition Total
Urban 32 13 53 2 100
Rural 70 26 51 53 200
Total 102 39 104 55 300
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.3.1 :Type of Residence
urban rural
Count
80
60
40
20
0
Child Dropout
Family need to work
School distance
Consume of education
Family Customer and
Traditional
62
3.3.2 Child Dropout * Type of Gender
Table (3.3.2) shows that cross tabulation between child dropout and type of
gender, is a highly significant association between two. P-value= 0.000,
Coefficient interval= 5%. This means that there is no relation between gender
and child dropout.
Table 3.3.2 shows that Cross Tabulation between Child Dropout and Type of Gender
Gender
Child Dropout
Family Need to
Work
School
Distance
Expenditure
on Education
Custom and Tradition
Total
Male 88 19 50 25 182
Female 14 20 54 30 118
Total 102 39 104 55 300
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.3.2 :Type of Gender
male female
Count
100
80
60
40
20
0
Child Dropout
Family need to work
School distance
Consume of education
Family Customer and
Traditional
63
3.3.3 Child Dropout * Family Size
The cross tabulation between child dropout and family size show that the is a
clear association between two, P-value= 0.006, Coefficient interval= 5%. This
indicates as the family size increase, the chances for the child to continue in
school.
Table 3.3.3 shows that Cross Tabulation between Child Dropout and Family Size
Family
Size
Child Dropout
Family Need
to Work
School
Distance
Expenditure
on Education
Custom and Tradition Total
3 - - - 1 1
4 7 6 9 1 23
5 15 7 17 5 42
6 24 6 29 8 67
7 15 9 24 14 62
8 27 4 10 10 51
9 11 3 14 7 35
10 - 1 3 1 5
11 1 - - 3 4
12 1 2 - 3 6
13 1 1 - 2 4
Total 102 39 104 55 300
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.3.3:Family Size
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
Count
40
30
20
10
0
Child Dropout
Fami ly need to work
School distance
Consume of education
Fami ly Customer and
Tradi tional
64
3.3.4 Child Dropout * Father's Age Group
Table (3.3.4) shows that cross tabulation between the child dropout and father's
age group is a highly associate, P-value=0.002, Coefficient interval= 5%. This
means that the older this father they high probability of child dropout because
the opportunity costs of not sending children to school is high, because the
family need the child to share in the family income.
Table 3.3.4 Show the Cross Tabulation between Child Dropout and Father's Age Group
Age Group
Child Dropout
Family Need
to Work
School
Distance
Expenditure
on Education
Custom and Tradition Total
Less than 34 1 - - - 1
( 35 ¡V 39) 2 - - - 2
( 40 ¡V 44 ) 9 2 10 2 23
( 45 ¡V 49) 14 2 10 - 26
( 50 ¡V 54 ) 12 2 4 1 19
( 55 ¡V 59 ) 17 6 13 4 40
( 60 ¡V 64 ) 16 9 22 13 60
( 65 ¡V 69 ) 16 9 28 14 67
( 70 ¡V 74 ) 12 2 3 7 24
( 75 ¡V 79 ) 2 7 10 9 28
( 80 ¡V 84 ) - - 3 4 7
Above 85 1 - 1 1 3
Total 102 39 104 55 300
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.3.4 :Father's Age Group
85 ab ove ( 80 - 84 ) ( 75 - 79 ) ( 70 - 74 ) ( 65 - 69 ) ( 60 - 64 ) ( 55 - 59 ) ( 50 - 54 ) ( 45 - 49 ) ( 40 - 44 ) ( 35 - 39 ) les s th an 34
Count
30
20
10
0
Child Dropout
Family need to work
School distance
Consume of education
Family Customer and
Traditional
65
3.3.5 Child Dropout * Father's Occupation
Table 3.3.5 shows that cross tabulation between the father's occupation and
child dropout, is a highly associate, P-value=0.000, Coefficient interval= 5%.
Father's occupation may be the most important explanatory variable for child
school dropout. As we illustrated the majorly of the people in the study are
belong to the low income, low education.
Table 3.3.5 Show the Cross Tabulation between Child Dropout and Father's Occupation
Type of
Occupation
Child Dropout
Family Need
to Work
School
Distance
Expenditure
on Education
Custom and Tradition Total
Labor 33 30 42 28 133
Farming 31 3 37 5 76
Business 9 - 9 4 22
Other Job 29 6 16 18 69
Total 102 39 104 55 300
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.3.5:Father's Occupation
Other job
Business
Farming
Labour
Count
50
40
30
20
10
0
Child Dropout
Family need to work
School distance
Consume of education
Family Customer and
Traditional
66
3.3.6 Child Dropout * Mother's Age Group
Table (3.3.6) shows strong association between children school dropout and
mother's age group, P-value=0.000, Coefficient interval= 5%. At age ( 40 - 64
)there are 89% family need child help him to increase income.
Table 3.3.6 Show the Cross Tabulation between Child Dropout and Mother's Age Group
Age Group
Child Dropout
Family Need to
Work
School
Distance
Expenditure
on Education
Custom and Tradition Total
( 25 ¡V 29 ) 2 1 - 1 4
( 30 ¡V 34 ) 5 2 2 2 11
( 35 ¡V 39 ) 4 3 7 2 16
( 40 ¡V 44 ) 19 - 1 4 24
( 45 ¡V 49 ) 27 21 46 3 97
( 50 ¡V 54 ) 26 2 14 14 56
( 55 ¡V 59 ) 8 10 20 8 46
( 60 ¡V 64 ) 11 - 12 17 40
( 65 ¡V 69 ) - - 2 3 5
Above 70 - - - 1 1
Total 102 39 104 55 300
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.3.6:Mother's Age Group
70 ab ove
( 65 - 69 )
( 60 - 64 )
( 55 - 59 )
( 50 - 54 )
(45 - 49 )
( 40 - 44 )
( 35 - 39 )
( 30 - 34 )
( 25 - 29 )
Count
50
40
30
20
10
0
Child Dropout
Family need to work
School distance
Consume of education
Family Customer and
Traditional
67
3.3.7 Child Dropout * Mother's Occupation
The cross tabulation between the child dropout and mother's occupation shows
a highly associate, P-value=0.010, Coefficient interval= 5%. The marginal of
mother are unemployment 49 and 48 expenditure on education is move ream
for child school dropout.
Table 3.3.7 Show the Cross Tabulation between Child Dropout and Mother's Occupation
Type of
Occupation
Child Dropout
Family Need
to Work
School
Distance
Expenditure
on Education
Custom and Tradition
Total
Unemployment 49 17 48 33 147
Labor 14 12 31 14 71
Farming 30 10 13 6 59
Business 3 - 6 1 10
Other Job 6 - 6 1 13
Total 102 39 104 55 300
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.3.7:Type of Mother's Occupation
Other job
Business
Farming
Labour
Unemployment
Count
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Child Dropout
Family need to work
School distance
Consume of education
Family Customer and
Traditional
68
3.3.8 Child Dropout * Family Income
The low incomes affect the education of the child and lead the child to dropout
of school. Table (3.3.8) shows the cross tabulation between the child dropout
and family income, a highly associate, between two. P-value=0.001,
Coefficient interval= 5%. The highest income is SDG 400, and that the majority
of the respondent that the family need for the child to work in the meager
factors in child school dropout. Equal number of respondent or a littlie may
believe that expenditure in education is also amateur important reason.
Table 3.3.8 Show the Cross Tabulation between Child Dropout and Family Income
Family
Income
Child Dropout
Family Need to
Work
School
Distance
Expenditure
on Education
Custom and Tradition Total
250 7 4 7 3 21
300 36 12 47 18 113
340 1 - 6 - 7
350 30 12 24 19 85
360 23 1 7 9 40
400 5 10 13 6 34
Total 102 39 104 55 300
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.3.8:Family Income
250 300 340 350 360 400 Count
50
40
30
20
10
0
Child Dropout
Family need to work
School distance
Consume of education
Family Customer and
Traditional
69
3.3.9 Child Dropout * Expenditure on Child Schooling
As partially shows in the cross tabulation expenditure on child schooling, which
is the cost in vowed in keeping the child in school in terms and fees, school
equipment. P-value=0.025, Coefficient interval= 5%.
Table 3.3.9 Show the Cross Tabulation between Child Dropout and Expenditure
Expenditure
Child Dropout
Family Need
to Work
School
Distance
Expenditure
on Education
Custom and Tradition Total
20 15 7 17 8 47
25 - - 1 - 1
30 25 7 34 12 78
35 21 15 16 12 64
40 26 3 12 6 47
45 10 1 13 9 33
50 5 6 11 8 30
Total 102 39 104 55 300
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.3.9:Expenditure on Child Schooling in Month
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Count
40
30
20
10
0
Child Dropout
Family need to work
School distance
Consume of education
Family Customer and
Traditional
70
3.4 Child Personal Characteristics Background
3.4.1 Child Dropout *School Distance
A cross tabulation between the child dropout and school distance. A highly
associate, between two. P-value=0.000, Coefficient interval= 5%. The table
3.4.1 represent that 57 of the respondent once again mention education cost
while 32 mention distance to school over 6.0 kilo matter are the main reasons
for school dropout.
Table 3.4.1 Show the Cross Tabulation between Child Dropout and School Distance
School Distance
Child Dropout
Family Need
to Work
School
Distance
Expenditure
on Education
Custom and Tradition Total
Below1.0 Kilo 27 2 37 18 84
(2 ¡V 5 ) Kilo 64 5 57 23 149
6 & over 11 32 10 14 67
Total 102 39 104 55 300
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.4.1:School Distance
6& over kilometer
2-5 kilometer
Below one kilometer
Count
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Child Dropout
Family need to work
School distance
Consume of education
Family Customer and
Traditional
71
3.4.2 Child Dropout * Academic Standard
Table 3.4.2 shows that cross tabulation between the child dropout and
academic standard, the study show no associate, between two. P-value=0.112,
Coefficient interval=5%. According to the study show that most child stopped
going to school because they were failing academically.
Table 3.4.2 Show the Cross Tabulation between Child Dropout and Academic Standard
Academic
Standard
Child Dropout
Family Need to
Work
School
Distance
Expenditure
on Education
Custom and Tradition
Total
Week 12 6 14 8 40
Medium 25 8 23 9 65
Good 28 20 40 26 114
Exultant 37 5 27 12 81
Total 102 39 104 55 300
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.4.2:Academic Standard
Week Medium Good Exultant
Count
50
40
30
20
10
0
Child Dropout
Family need to work
School distance
Consume of education
Family Customer and
Traditional
72
3.4.3 Child Dropout * Class Dropout
Table 3.4.3 shows cross tabulation between child dropout and class dropout, a
highly associate, between two. P-value=0.000, Coefficient interval= 5%. It is
clear that the dropout measure as the children move to helper family more than
50% of the popular withdraw from school after the fifth class. They may be
attainted to a number factors most important of which is the failure of the
family to cope with the rising cost of education, the need for the education to
support the family income people at this age may also be a factor.
Table 3.4.3 Show the Cross Tabulation between Child Dropout and Class Dropout
Class
Child Dropout
Family Need to
Work
School
Distance
Expenditure
on Education
Custom and Tradition
Total
First - 2 13 - 15
Second 6 9 16 - 31
Third 18 8 3 5 34
Fourth 10 4 7 5 26
Fifth 21 7 8 4 40
Sixth 5 4 30 19 58
Seventh 20 2 17 12 51
Eighth 22 3 10 10 45
Total 102 39 104 55 300
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figure 3.4.3:Class Dropout
Eighth
Seventh
Sixth
Fifth
Fourth
Third
Second
First
Count
40
30
20
10
0
Child Dropout
Family need to work
School distance
Consume of education
Family Customer and
Traditional
73
3.4.4 Child Dropout * Child Order
Table (3.4.5), shows that cross tabulation between the child dropout and child
order, a highly associate, between two. P-value=0.004, Coefficient interval=
5%. The study shows 73% family needs help to raising income.
Table 3.4.4 Show the Cross Tabulation between Child Dropout and Child Order
Child
Order
Child Dropout
Family Need
to Work
School
Distance
Expenditure
on Education
Custom and Tradition Total
1 35 8 29 8 80
2 39 19 46 18 122
3 15 8 24 22 69
4 13 2 5 6 26
5 - 1 - 1 2
6 - 1 - - 1
Total 102 39 104 55 300
Source: primary data survey conducted in Singa Locality, 2009
Figuer 3.4.4:Child Order
1 2 3 4 5 6
Count
50
40
30
20
10
0
Child Dropout
Family need to work
School distance
Consume of education
Family Customer and
Traditional
74
CAHPTER FOUR
Conclusion and Recommendations
4.1 Introduction
Education brings wide-ranging benefits to both individuals and societies. It is
considered so important to individual development that the right to primary
education is legally guaranteed in most countries of the world. Education is also
recognized crucial to human development. Indeed the Education for all
movement and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have led to greater
attention paid to educational participation and completion.
4.2 Conclusion
The study findings indicate that a socio-economic factor has had a profound
impact on access to primary education and dropout of pupils from school. This
is confirmed by the insignificance of distance to school and total average
amount of school dues paid by students in influencing dropout of pupils.
Academic attainment of parents is a key factor that influences the chances of a
child dropping out of school in both rural and urban areas, and across all age
cohorts. We therefore recommend the policy and programmes of adult
education by government to be rolled out in all parts of the country. The
importance of adult education is envisaged to aid in enhancing attitudinal
change among illiterate and ignorant parents in favor of child education.
As the number of the economically active members of household increases, the
likelihood of primary school dropout increases other factors held unchanged.
This implies that a good number of the economically active people are actually
unproductive. This finding points to the need to expand employment
opportunities, especially for the youth. Policies and programmes aimed at
enhancing productive capacities at household levels could go a long way in
75
curtailing this problem. This also suggests that expanding free universal
education to secondary and vocational levels is important, as it would allow
some of those who can not afford secondary education to continue with
schooling. This has the effect of reducing the number of unproductive members
in the household.
4.3 Recommendations
1. The direct and the opportunity costs of going to school and the value attached
to education by parents and children are influenced by many factors, both at the
level of the household and the context in which the household is situated.
Parents¡¦ schooling level and work situation might influence the degree to which
schooling is valued in the household.
2. The number and gender of the children in the household might influence the
distribution of scarce resources available for education among them.
3. The quantity and quality of the local educational facilities determine whether
it is possible and makes sense to go to school.
4. The presence of more jobs for father, as indicated by the percentage of men
with such an occupation, significantly increases children¡¦s and especially boy¡¦s
likelihood to stay in school.
5. Cultural practices, like marriage traditions, may influence the returns to
education of daughters versus sons, etc.
6. Several policy recommendations can be deduced from this study. Findings
emphasize the importance of socio-economic factors, especially wealth and
parental education. Children from households with few economic and
educational resources were found to have higher chance to drop out of school.
Because it is hard to change the level of parental education, reducing financial
barriers remains an important instrument for preventing school drop out.
76
7. Promoting access by child to education involves the cooperation of all
stakeholders ¡V parents, guardians, community leaders, government, Non-
Governmental Organizations, researchers, etc. All concerned should form a
partnership to formulate viable and innovative strategies to create an
environment favorable to child¡¦s education.
8. The State and civil society organizations to support education-for-food,
because these denominational great in the role of children completing their
education.
77
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